Enzyme Catalyst

Enzymes serve as catalysts, facilitating and accelerating numerous crucial metabolic processes in both plants and animals. Enzyme catalysis specifically pertains to the process where enzymes act as catalysts, expediting biochemical reactions.

1.0Introduction

Enzymes are complex nitrogenous organic compounds produced by living plants and animals. They are high molecular mass protein molecules that form colloidal solutions in water. Enzymes are also referred to as protein-based biochemical catalysts that accelerate biological reactions without altering the final product., and their activity is known as biochemical catalysis. 

The term "enzymes" originates from the Greek word "enzymos," meaning "in yeast," as yeast cells were the first to reveal enzyme activity in living organisms. In 1878, W. Kuhne coined the term "enzyme."

Many enzymes have been isolated in pure crystalline form from living cells.Unlike non-biological catalysts, enzymes are exclusively produced by living organisms and exhibit specificity and control over reaction rates. By lowering activation energy, enzymes enable biochemical reactions to occur at low temperatures. Consequently, they are integral catalysts in biological processes.

2.0Characteristics of Enzyme Catalysts

• Protein Nature: Enzymes are primarily composed of proteins, with complex nitrogenous structures and high molecular masses.
• High Specificity: Enzymes are highly specific, meaning each enzyme typically catalyzes only one type of reaction or acts on a specific substrate.
• Catalytic Efficiency: Enzymes significantly accelerate biochemical reactions, often by factors of millions, allowing reactions to occur rapidly under mild conditions.
• Temperature Sensitivity: Enzymes function optimally within a specific temperature range. Extreme temperatures can denature enzymes, reducing their activity.
• pH Sensitivity: Enzymes have an optimal pH range and can lose activity if the pH deviates significantly from this range.
• Formation of Colloidal Solutions: Enzymes form colloidal solutions in water, aiding their interaction with substrates.
• Reusability: Like other catalysts, enzymes are not consumed in the reaction and can be used repeatedly.
• Reduction of Activation Energy: Enzymes lower the activation energy required for reactions, facilitating biochemical processes to occur at lower temperatures.
• Presence in Living Cells: Enzymes are naturally produced by living organisms, both plants and animals, and are extracted in pure crystalline forms for various applications.
• Regulation: Enzyme activity can be regulated by inhibitors, activators, and through feedback mechanisms, allowing precise control over metabolic pathways.

3.0Mechanism of the enzyme catalysis

Enzymes have several cavities on their surface containing functional groups such as -COOH, -SH, and others. These cavities serve as active centers for biochemical reactions. The substrate, with a complementary shape and opposite charge to the enzyme, fits into these cavities like a key into a lock. This binding forms an enzyme-substrate complex, which facilitates the catalytic reaction and produces the final product.

The catalytic process involves two main steps:

• Formation of Enzyme-Substrate Complex:                       

E + S → ES(where E is the enzyme and S is the substrate)

• Formation of Product and Release of Enzyme: 

ES → E + P

(where P is the product)

In the first step, the enzyme (E) and substrate (S) bind to form the enzyme-substrate complex (ES). In the second step, the complex (ES) breaks down to release the enzyme (E) and form the product (P). This allows the enzyme to be reused in subsequent reactions.

4.0Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity

Temperature:

• Optimal Range: Enzymes function best at specific temperatures, often around 37°C for human enzymes.
• High Temperatures: Increase activity until denaturation occurs.
• Low Temperatures: Decrease activity due to reduced molecular movement.

pH:

• Optimal pH: Each enzyme has an ideal pH, with pepsin around pH 2 and trypsin around pH 8. Deviations can reduce activity or denature the enzyme.

Substrate Concentration:

• Effect: Activity increases with substrate concentration until all active sites are saturated (V_max)

Enzyme Concentration:

• Effect: Higher enzyme concentrations increase reaction rates if the substrate is abundant.

Inhibitors:

• Competitive: Compete with the substrate for the active site.
• Non-Competitive: Bind elsewhere, altering enzyme shape and function.

Activators:

• Cofactors and Coenzymes: Essential non-protein molecules, such as metal ions or vitamins, enhance enzyme activity.

5.0Examples of enzyme activators 

Enzyme activators are molecules that enhance the catalytic activity of enzymes. These molecules can bind to enzymes and induce a conformational change that increases the enzyme's catalytic efficiency. Examples of enzyme activators include:

• Metal ions: Certain metal ions, such as magnesium, zinc, and calcium, can serve as enzyme activators by stabilizing enzyme-substrate complexes or participating directly in catalytic reactions.
• Coenzymes: Some coenzymes, such as ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), act as enzyme activators by donating or accepting functional groups during enzymatic reactions.
• Allosteric activators: These molecules bind to regulatory sites on enzymes, causing a conformational change that enhances enzyme activity. For example, ATP can act as an allosteric activator for phosphofructokinase in glycolysis.
• Hormones: Certain hormones, such as insulin, can activate enzymes by binding to cell surface receptors and triggering intracellular signaling pathways that lead to increased enzyme activity.
• Substrates: In some cases, substrates themselves can act as enzyme activators by binding to enzymes and inducing a conformational change that enhances catalytic activity.